TOEFL

PREPARATION GUIDE
TOEFL


• LISTENING COMPREHENSION
• STRUCTURE AND WRITTEN EXPRESSION
• READING COMPREHENSION AND VOCABULARY





Editor by Hasnun Jauhari Ritonga, MA


TOEFL
SECTION 1: LISTENING COMPREHENSION
PART A

PATTERN # 1

Teens and tens
Teens are numbers like thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, and nineteen. Tens are numbers like thirty, forty, fifty, sixty, seventy, eighty, and ninety.
Also, pay close attention when contrasting teens and tens and listen carefully to understand the difference in pronunciation between 14, 15, 16, etc. and 40, 50, 60, etc.
These are usually the most difficult pairs:
12 - 20 / 13 - 30 / 14 - 40 / 15 - 50
16 - 60 / 17 - 70 / 18 - 80 / 19 - 90
In some statements on Part A, you will have to hear the difference between a teen and a ten in order to answer problems correctly.
When you hear a statement, you must decide whether the number is a teen or a ten. For example, thirteen or thirty.
EXAMPLE:
Statement: Take the number seventeen bus to the shopping center and transfer to the ten.
Restatement: The 17 bus goes to the shopping center.

PATTERN # 2

Computations
Computations means simple mathematics.
In some statements on Part A, you will have to add, subtract, multiply, or divide in order to answer the problems correctly. In other statements, you will be given all of the information and you will NOT need to add, etc.
When you hear a statement, you must decide whether it is necessary to compute the answer. If you need to make a computation, you must be accurate.
EXAMPLE:
Statement: I thought that I had set the alarm clock for seven o’clock, but it rang an hour early. Restatement: The alarm rang at six o’clock.

PATTERN # 3

Minimal pairs
Minimal pairs are words that sound almost alike.
In some statements on Part A, you will hear a word that sounds almost like another word.
When you hear a statement, you must listen carefully to the sounds.
These are some of the most difficult pairs:
late-let / fond-found / said-sad / best-vest
thick-sick / run-rung / look-luck / hot-hat
they-day / run-ran / not-nut / eat-it
leaf-leave / safe-save / sung-song
EXAMPLE:
Statement: I thought her last name was "Best", but it was "Past."
Restatement: She is Mrs. Past (not Best).

PATTERN # 4

Synonyms
Synonyms are words that have the same meaning.
In some statements on Part A, you will hear a word that has a common synonym.
When you hear a statement, you must know the meaning of the words. You must be able to recognize a synonym.
EXAMPLE:
Statement: My roommate always prepares lunch and dinner for us.
Restatement: My roommate fixes our lunch and dinner.

PATTERN # 5

Negatives
Negatives are negations of affirmative statements.
In some statements on Part A, you will hear a negative or a double negative.
When you hear a negative or a double negative, you must be able to restate the information.
EXAMPLE:
Statement: Not one student has bought enough insurance.
Restatement: None of the students is sufficiently insured.
PATTERN # 6

References
Reference means the person referred to in a statement.
In some statements on Part A, you will hear two or three names.
When you hear a statement, you must remember how each person was referred to.
EXAMPLE:
Statement: Tom doesn’t know whether his father will allow his sister to come to the United States to study.
Restatement: Tom’s sister may come to the United States.

PATTERN # 7

Comparatives
Comparatives are comparisons of two or more people or things. In many ways, Comparatives are like References.
In some statements on Part A, you will hear descriptions of two or three people or things.
When you hear a statement, you must remember how each was compared with the other.
EXAMPLE:
Statement: Mary gets better grades in English than she does in math.
Restatement: Mary’s grades in math are not as good as her grades in English.

PATTERN # 8

Conditionals
Conditionals are statements of conditions and imagíned results.
In some statements on Part A, you will hear a conditional introduced by the word if; in others, you will hear a conditional introduced by the word whether or unless.
When you hear a statement, you must be able to restate the information as facts instead of imagined results.
EXAMPLE:
Statement: We would have had a good time at the football game if it hadn't been so cold.
Restatement: We didn't have a good time because it was too cold.

PATTERN # 9

Concessions
Concessions are statements of unexpected results.
In some statements on Part A, you will hear a concession introduced by the word but. The word instead or anyway may be the last word in the statement.
When you hear a statement, you must be able to restate the information.
EXAMPLE:
Statement: The computer will be available any time but one o’clock.
Restatement: The computer will not be available at one o’clock.

PATTERN # 10

More Concessions
Please, remember that Concessions are statements of unexpected results.
In some statements on Part A, you will hear a concession introduced by a situation with although, though, even though, in spite of, despite, or contrary to.
When you hear a statement, you must be able to restate the information.
EXAMPLE:
Statement: Contrary to what Ellen had expected, the
city was very nice.
Restatement: Ellen had not expected the city to be nice.

PATTERN # 11

Causals
Causals are statements of cause or explanation.
In some statements on Part A, you will hear a causal introduced by the word since (dado que) or because (puesto que).
When you hear a statement, you must be able to restate the information.
EXAMPLE:
Statement: Since Mark couldn't find his keys he had to pay for them.
Restatement: Mark paid for his keys because he lost them.

PATTERN # 12

Cause and effect adjectives
Cause and effect adjectives are adjectives that end in -ing or -ed. They are usually verbals from verbs such as annoy, bore, encourage, fascinate, interest and surprise.
In some statements on Part A, you will hear a cause adjective, an effect adjective, or a verb form.
When you hear a statement, you must be able to restate the Information.
EXAMPLE:
Statement: The new project interests my professors.
Restatement: My professors are interested in the new project.

PATTERN # 13

Chronological events
Chronological events are events that take place in time relationship to each other.
In some statements on Part A, two or more events will be mentioned.
When you hear a statement, you must remember which event took place first, second, and so on.
EXAMPLE:
Statement: We plan to meet at the car a few minutes after the shopping center closes.
Restatement: The shopping center will close before we meet at the car.


SECTION 1: LISTENING COMPREHENSION
PART B: CONVERSATIONS
Direct Conversations
Direct means stated.
In some conversations on Part B, you will hear all of the information that you need to answer the problem correctly. You will NOT need to draw conclusions.
When you hear a conversation between two speakers, you must remember the details that were stated.
EXAMPLE:
Man: Tell me about your trip to New York.
Woman: It was great! We saw the Statue of Liberty and the Empire State Building and all of the tourist attractions the first day, then we saw the museums the second day, and spent the rest of the time shopping and seeing shows.
Third Voice: What are the man and woman talking about?
Answer: The woman's trip.


PATTERN # 15

Computation Conversations
Please, remember that Computations means simple mathematics.
In some conversations on Part B, you will have to add, subtract, multiply, or divide in order to answer the problems correctly. In other conversations, you will be given all of the information, and you will NOT need to add, etc.
When you hear a conversation between two speakers, you must decide whether it is necessary to compute the answer to the question asked by the third voice, If you need to make a computation, you must be accurate.
EXAMPLE:
Woman: How many stamps do I need to send this package airmail?
Man: Airmail? Well, that’s going to be expensive. Airmail postage is 32 cents for the first ounce and 24 cents for each dditional ounce. You have eleven ounces here.
Third Voice: How much will it cost the woman to mail her package?
Answer: $2.72.


PATTERN # 16

Place Conversations
Place means the location where the conversation occurred.
In some conversations on Part B, you will hear words and phrases that will suggest a location. For example, "books," a "card catalog," and a "check-out desk" suggest a "library."
When you hear a conversation between two speakers, you must listen for information that will help you draw a conclusion about where the conversation most probably took place.
EXAMPLE:
Woman: l'll need a dozen three-penny nails and six wood screws, too.
Man: The screws come in packages of ten for ninety-nine cents. I hope that's all right.
Third Voice: Where does this conversation most probably take place?
Answer: At the hardware store.

PATTERN # 17

Implied Conversations
Implied means suggested, but not stated. In many ways, implied conversations are like Place conversations.
In some conversations on Part B, you will hear words and phrases or intonations that will suggest how the speakers felt, what they will probably do, or what kind of work or activity that they were involved in during the conversation.
When you hear a conversation between two speakers, you must listen for information that will help you draw a conclusion about the situation.
EXAMPLE:
Man: Could you please book me on the next flight out to Los Angeles?
Woman: l'm sorry, sir. Continental doesn't fly into Los Angeles. Why don't you try Delta or United?
Third Voice: What will the man probably do?
Answer: He will probably get a ticket for a flight on Delta or United Airlines.



SECTION 1: LISTENING COMPREHENSION
PART C: MINI TALKS
PATTERN # 18

IMPORTANT: The examples in this part of SECTION I are shorter than the actual mini talks on the TOEFL examination. The actual mini talks usually have four questions following them.
Overheard Conversations
Overheard conversations are conversations heard by someone who is not talking.
In some talks on Part C, you will hear a long conversation between two or three speakers.
When you hear a conversation, you must be able to summarize the important ideas. You will usually NOT be required to remember small details.
EXAMPLE:
Ted Parker: Are you Mrs. Williams?
Mrs. Williams: Why yes.
Ted Parker: l'm Ted Parker. I talked with you on the telephone earlier today.
Mrs. Williams: Oh, good.
Ted Parker: Let me show you what we have in a new Oldsmobile Cutlass.
Mrs. Williams: I want to look at last year's model, too, if you have any.
Ted Parker: I have one. A red Delta 88 with 2,000 miles on it. It was a demonstrator.
Mrs. Williams: A demonstrator?
Ted Parker: That means that only the sales staff have driven it.
Question: Who is the man?
Answer: A car salesman.


PATTERN # 19

IMPORTANT: The examples in this part of SECTION I are shorter than the actual mini talks on the TOEFL examination. The actual mini talks usually have four questions following them.
Announcements and Advertisements
Announcements are short talks that provide factual information. Advertisements are short talks that provide persuasive Information.
In some talks on Part C, you will hear factual or persuasive information.
When you hear a talk, you must be able to summarize the important ideas. You must also be able to answer questions that begin with the following words: who, what, when, why?
EXAMPLE:
Announcer: During this holiday season you’ll be glad that you took pictures. So get kodacolor film at Fotoland, this week only, two rolls for $3.25. Remember, good pictures start with good film, and kodacolor is the best !!
Get your film now at Fotoland and bring it back after the holiday to be developed. Unless we develop your pictures in three days, you don’t pay us a penny, and you never pay unless they turn out like you want them to.
With Fotoland, you can depend on larger, clearer prints. Pictures will make your memories of this Christmas last forever.
From all of us at Fotoland, best wishes for a Merry Christmas, and many more pictures this year!
Question: What is the advertisement about?
Answer: Film and film processing.


PATTERN # 20

IMPORTANT: The examples in this part of SECTION I are shorter than the actual mini talks on the TOEFL examination. The actual mini talks usually have four questions following them.
News Reports
News Reports are short talks that provide information about the news of the day.
In some talks on Part C, you will hear information about the news.
When you hear a talk, you must be able to summarize the information. You will usually NOT be required to remember small details.
EXAMPLE:
Reporter: Today's story is about the flight from the cities. Everyone knows that it is happening, but only recently have we been able to determine where people are going. To the suburbs? To the fringes of the city? Surprisingly not. In a marked reversal of U.S. migration patterns non-metropolitan areas have started growing faster than metropolitan areas. City dwellers are leaving to settle in small-town America.
New census figures confirm both the shrinkage of many urban areas and the revival of small towns, a trend that began to become apparent in the last decade. While the national population increased by 4.8 percent from 1970-1975, towns of 2,500-25,000 persons rose 7.5 percent, and the smallest towns with populations of less than 2,500 rose 8.7 percent, or nearly double the national rate.
Question: What is the topic of this talk?
Answer: Migration out of the cities.


PATTERN # 21

IMPORTANT: The examples in this part of SECTION I are shorter than the actual mini talks on the TOEFL examination. The actual mini talks usually have four questions following them.
Weather Reports
Weather reports are short talks that predict the weather.
In some talks on Part C, you will hear predictions of the weather.
When you hear a talk, you must be able to summarize the prediction. You will usually NOT be required to remember small details.
EXAMPLE:
Reporter: Good morning. This is Danny Jackson with the Weather Watch, brought to you every day at this time by the Austin Chamber of Commerce. The week-long extended forecast for Austin and the Texas Hill Country calls for mostly sunny weather today and Tuesday with temperatures in the high seventies. By Wednesday, a cold pressure area that has been building out over the Gulf of Mexico should begin to move inland over Texas bringing about a ten-degree drop in temperatures over the south central part of the state. By Wednesday night that same low pressure should probably be dropping rain over the Austin area, with rain continuing into Thursday and possibly even early Friday. By Friday afternoon though, if all goes well, we should begin to see clear skies again with a rise in temperatures back into the seventies. Saturday and Sunday look like they’ll be just beautiful. Danny Jackson with Weather Watch. Have a good week, Austin.
Question: What is the weather forecast for the week?
Answer: Sunny today with rain toward the middle of the week and sunshine again on the weekend.


PATTERN # 22

IMPORTANT: The examples in this part of SECTION I are shorter than the actual mini talks on the TOEFL examination. The actual mini talks usually have four questions following them.
Informative Speeches
Informative speeches are short talks that províde factual information.
In many ways, Informative speeches are like Announcements and Advertisements.
In some talks on Part C, you will hear factual information.
When you hear a talk, you must be able to summarize the important ideas. You must also be able to answer questions that begin with the following words: who, what, when, where, why?
EXAMPLE:
Speaker: Welcome to the Lincoln Memorial, located, as you can see, on the west bank of the Potomac River on the axis of the Capitol Building and the Washington Monument.
The structure itself was designed by Henry Bacon in 1912, and completed ten years later at a cost of 2.9 million dollars.
The outer walls of the memorial are white Colorado marble, 189 feet long and 118 feet, 8 inches wide. The thirty-six outer columns are also of marble, representing the thirty-six states that were in the Union at the time of Lincoln's death. The name of each state is cut into stone above the column.
Inside the memorial, the walls are Indiana limestone and the floor is pink Tennessee marble.
Three commemorative features include the huge seated statue of Lincoln and two inscribed stone tablets.
Question: Why are there thirty-six columns?
Answer: There is one for each state in the Union at the time of Lincoln's death.


PATTERN # 23

IMPORTANT: The examples in this part of SECTION I are shorter than the actual mini talks on the TOEFL examination. The actual mini talks usually have four questions following them.
Academic Statements
Academic statements are short talks that provide academic information. They are like short lectures that might be heard in a college classroom.
In some talks on Part C, you will hear academic information,
When you hear a talk, you must be able to summarize the important ideas. You must also be able to answer questions that begin with the following words: who, what, when, where, why?
EXAMPLE:
Speaker: Ernest Hemingway began his writing career as an ambitious, young American newspaperman in Paris after the First World War. His early books, including “The Sun Also Rises”, were published in Europe before they were released in the United States.
Hemingway always wrote from experience rather than from imagination. In “Farewell to Arms”, published in 1929, he recounted his adventures as an ambulance driver in Italy during the war. In “For Whom the Bell Tolls”, published in 1940, he retold his memories of the Spanish Civil War.
Perhaps more than any other twentieth-century American writer, he was responsible for creating a style of literature. The Hemingway style was hard, economica!, and powerful. It lured the reader into using imagination in order to fill in the details.
In 1952, Hemingway published “The Old Man and the Sea”, a short, compelling tale of an old fisherman’s struggle to haul in a giant marlin that he had caught in the Gulf of Mexico. Some critics interpreted it as the allegory of man’s struggle against oíd age; others interpreted it as man against the forces of nature. The climax of Hemingway’s career, the book was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1954.
Question: Which book won the Nobel Prize for literature?
Answer: “The Old Man and the Sea”.


PATTERN # 24

IMPORTANT: The examples in this part of SECTION I are shorter than the actual mini talks on the TOEFL examination. The actual mini talks usually have four questions following them.
Class Discussions
Class discussions are conversations that occur in classrroms. Class discussions are like Overheard conversations.
In some talks on Part C, you will hear a long conversation between two, three, or more speakers.
When you hear a conversation, you must be able to summarize the important ideas. You will usually NOT be required to remember small details.
EXAMPLE:
Miss Richards: Good morning. My name is Miss Richards and l'll be your instructor for Career Education 100. Before we get started l'd appreciate it if you would introduce yourselves, and tell us a little bit about why you decided to take this class. let's start here ...
Bill: l'm Bill Jensen, and I'm a sophomore this term, but I still haven't decided what to major in. I hope that this class will help me.
Miss Richards: Good, I hope so, too. Next.
Patty: l'm Patty Davis and l'm majoring in foreign languages, but l'm not sure what kind of job I can get after I graduate.
Miss Richards: Are you a sophomore too, Patty?
Patty: No. l'm a senior. I wish l'd taken this class sooner but I didn't know about
it until this term.
Question: What are the man and woman talking about?
Answer: They are introducing themselves.

a sophomore: A second-year undergraduate (USA).
a senior: An undergraduate student during the year preceding graduation (USA).



SECTION 2: STRUCTURE AND WRITTEN EXPRESSION
PART A: STRUCTURE
PATTERN # 25

Verbs that require an infinitive or an -ing form in the complement
S = Subject; V = Verb; C = Complement; M = Modifier
S V C M
We had planned to go the day before yesterday
Remember that the following verbs require an infinitive in the complement: agree, decide, expect, fail, hope, intend, learn, plan, promise, refuse, want.
Avoid using an -ing form after the verbs listed. Avoid using a verb word after want.
S = Subject; V = Verb; C = Complement; M = Modifier
S V C M
He enjoys traveling by plane
Remember that the following verbs require an -ing form in the complement: admit, appreciate, avoid, consider, deny, enjoy, finish, practice, quit, regret, risk, stop.
Avoid using an infinitive after the verbs lIsted.
Forbid may be used with either an infinitive or an -ing complement, but forbid from is not idiomatic.
S = Subject; V Ph = Verb Phrase; C = Complement; M = Modifier
S V Ph C M
She forgot about canceling her appointment
Remember that the following verb phrases require an -ing form in the complement: approve of, be better off, can't help, count on, do not mind, forget about, get through, insist on, keep on, look forward to, object to, think about, think of.
Avoid using an infinitive after the verb phrases listed.
Avoid using a verb word after look forward to and object to.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: She is considering not to go.
Correct: She is considering not going.


PATTERN # 26

Participles
HAVE participle
The concert had begun before we could find our seats.
Remember that the participles of the following verbs are not the same as the past forms.
Avoid using a past form instead of a participle with have, has, had, or having.
Verb Word Past Form Participle
begin
come
choose
drínk
fall
give
know
run
see
speak
steal
take
tear
go
wear
write began
came
chose
drank
fell
gave
knew
ran
saw
spoke
stole
took
tore
went
wore
wrote begun
come
chosen
drunk
fallen
given
known
run
seen
spoken
stolen
taken
torn
gone
worn
written

EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: Someone had broken into the office and stole the files.
Correct: Someone had broken into the office and stolen the files.


PATTERN # 27

Necessity, usually for repair
or improvement
Subject NEED -ing form
This paragraph needs revising
Avoid using an infinitive or a participle instead of an –ing form.
Subject NEED to be participle
This paragraph needs to be revised
Avoid using an –ing form instead of a participle.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: His car needs to fix
Correct: His car needs fixing.
His car needs to be fixed.


PATTERN # 28

Ability
S KNOW noun
I know the answer
Avoid using an infinitive after know.
S KNOW how infinitive
I know how to answer the question
Remember that how must be used with an infinitive.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: If she knew to drive, he would lend her his car.
Correct: If she knew how to drive, he would lend her his car.


PATTERN # 29

Past custom
S USED TO verb word
He used to live in the country
Avoid using a form of be after the subject. Avoid using the incorrect form use to.
S BE USED TO -ing form
He was used to living in the country
Avoid using a form of be after used to.
Avoid using a verb word instead of an -ing form.
Avoid using the incorrect form use to.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: I used to was studying at the University of Southern California before I transferred here.
Correct: I used to study at the University of Southern California before I transferred here.
I was used to studying at the University of Southern California before I transferred here.




PATTERN # 30

Logical conclusions
S must have participle past time
My friend must have called last night
S must be -ing present time
My friend must be calling now
S must verb word repeated time
My friend must call often
Remember that an observation in the present may serve as the basis for a conclusion about something that happened in the past,
For example, "here is a message on my desk." It may be concluded that "my friend must have called last night."
Avoid using should or can instead of must.
Avoid using a verb word instead of have and a participle when referring to a past occurrence.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: The streets are wet; it should have rained
last night.
Correct: The streets are wet; it must have rained last night.


PATTERN # 31

Advisability
S = Subject; VW = Verb Word
S had better VW
You had better take Chemistry this semester
S had better not VW
You had better not take Chemistry this semester
Remember that although had is a past form, it refers to future time in this pattern.
Avoid using an infinitive or a past form of a verb instead of a verb word.
Avoid using don’t instead of not.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: You had better to hurry if you don’t want to miss the bus.
Correct: You had better hurry if you don’t want to miss the bus.


PATTERN # 32

Question forms for invitations
and customs
Would you like infinitive
Would you like to watch the news today?
Remember that would like means to want. It is used in a question form for an invitation. A specific date such as today is usually included.
Avoid using will and won't instead of would.
Avoid using do instead of would for invitations.
Would you like infinitive
Do you like to watch the news every day?
Remember that like means to enjoy. It is used with do in a question form for asking about customs. A word or phrase indicating habitual action such as every day is usually included.
Avoid using would instead of do for customs.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: Do you like to come to a party on Saturday at the International House?
Correct: Would you like to come to a party on Saturday at the International House?


PATTERN # 33

Preference
S would rather verb word
I would rather drive
S would rather not verb word
I would rather not drive
Avoid using an infinitive or an –ing form instead of a verb word,
S would rather that S V (past)
I would rather that you drove
Avoid using a present verb or a verb word instead of a past verb.
Avoid using should and a verb word instead of a past verb.
S would rather that S didn’t verb word
I would rather that you didn’t drive
Avoid using don’t or doesn’t instead of didn’t.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: I’d rather that you don’t do that.
Correct: I’d rather that you didn’t do that.



PATTERN # 34

Unfulfilled desires in the past
S = Subject; VW = Verb Word
S had hoped that S would VW
We had hoped that she would change her mind
Avoid using a verb word instead of would and a verb word.
Avoid using the incorrect pattern:
S = Subject; OP = Object Pronoun
S had hoped OP -ing form
We had hoped her changing her mind
Avoid using don’t or doesn’t instead of didn’t.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: He had hoped that he graduate this semester, but he couldn’t finish his thesis in time.
Correct: He had hoped that he would graduate this semester, but he couldn’t finish his thesis in time.


PATTERN # 35

Conditions
S = Subject; V = Verb; VW = Verb Word
If S V (present) S will VW
If we find her address, we will write her
or ...
S = Subject; VW = Verb Word; V = Verb
S will VW if S V (present)
We will write her if we find her address
Avoid using a present verb instead of will and a verb word.
S = Subject; V = Verb; VW = Verb Word
If S V (past) S would VW
If we found her address, we would write her
or ...
S = Subject; VW = Verb Word; V = Verb
S would VW if S V(past)
We would write her if we found her address
Avoid using would and a verb word instead of a past verb.
S = Subject
would have
If S had participle , S could have participle
If we had found her address, we would have written her
If we had found her address, we could have written her
or ...
S = Subject
would have
S could have participle if S had participle
We would have written her if we had found her address
We could have written her if we had found her address
Avoid using would have and a participle instead of had and a participle. Avoid using have as a participle.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: If you listen to the questions carefully, you answer them easily.
Correct: If you listen to the questions carefully, you will answer them easily.
You will answer them easily if you listen to the questions carefully.


PATTERN # 36

Desires
S = Subject; WISH (p) = WISH (present)
had
could have
S WISH (p) that S would have participle
I wish that you had called yesterday
I wish that you could have called yesterday
I wish that you would have called yesterday
Remember that although the verb WISH is in present tense, this pattern refers to desires in the past.
S = Subject; WISH (p) = WISH (present); VW = Verb Word
V (past)
could VW
S WISH (p) that S would VW
I wish that you called every day
I wish that you could call tomorrow
I wish that you would call tomorrow
Remember that although the verb WISH is in present tense, this pattern refers to desires for customs and future events,
Avoid using this pattern to express desires in the past.
Avoid using will instead of could and would.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: I wish that I received this letter before the office closed for the day.
Correct: I wish that I had received this letter before the office closed for the day.
I wish that I could have received this letter before the office closed for the day.
I wish that I would have received this letter before the office closed for the day.


PATTERN # 38

Subjunctives
S = Subject; V = Verb; VW = Verb Word
S V that S VW
Mr. Moore prefers that she speak with him personally
Remember that the following verbs are used before that and the verb word clause: ask, demand, desire, insist, prefer, recommend, require, suggest.
If the context is formal, avoid using a present or past verb instead of a verb word.
Informal context: Mr. Moore prefers that she speaks with him personally.
Avoid using a modal before the verb word.
S = Subject; VW = Verb Word
noun that S VW
The recommendation that we be evaluated was approved
Remember that these nouns are used in this pattern: recommendation, requirement, suggestion.

If the context is formal, avoid using a present or past verb instead of a verb word.

Informal context: The recommendation that we were evaluated was approved.

Avoid using a modal before the verb word.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: The doctor suggested that she will not smoke.
Correct:
The doctor suggested that she not smoke.

The doctor suggested that she did not smoke (informal context).


PATTERN # 39

Impersonal expressions
it is adjective infinitive
It is important to verify the data
or …
S = Subject; VW = Verb Word
it is adjective that S VW
It is important that the data be verified
Remember that the following adjectives are used in this pattern: essential, imperative, important, necessary.
If the context is formal, avoid using a present verb instead of a verb word.
Informal context: It is important that the data is verified.
Avoid using a modal before the verb word.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: It is not necessary that you must take an entrance examination to be admitted to an American university.
Correct:
It is not necessary to take an entrance examination to be admitted to an American university.
It is not necessary that you take an entrance examination to be admitted to an American university.

PATTERN # 40

Causatives
S = Subject; SO. = someone; VW = Verb Word
S HAVE so. VW
My English teacher had us give oral reports
Avoid using an infinitive or an -ing form instead of a verb word before a person in patterns of cause.
S = Subject; SO. = someone; VW = Verb Word
S MADE so. VW
His mother made him take his medicine
Avoid using an infinitive or an -ing form instead of a verb word before a person in patterns of cause.
S = Subject; STH. = something
S HAVE sth. participle
I want to have this book renewed, please
Avoid using a verb word or an infinitive instead of a participle before a thing in patterns of cause.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: Tom had a tooth fill.
Correct: Tom had a tooth filled.


PATTERN # 41

Tag questions
Tag questions are used frequently in conversation to encourage agreement or to verify a statement.
Remember that the subject in the main clause and the subject in the tag question must refer to the same person or thing.
The tag question is always separated from the main clause by a comma.
S = Subject
S BE , BE not S
The mail is late, isn’t it?
S = Subject
S BE not , BE S
The mail isn’t late again, is it?
Avoid using a negative in both the main clause and the tag question.
S = Subject; V (present) = Verb in present tense
S V (present) , DO not S
They agree with us, don’t they?
Avoid using won’t instead of don’t or doesn’t.
Avoid using did.
S = Subject; V (past) = Verb in past tense
S V(past) , did not S
They agreed with us, didn’t they?
Avoid using don’t or doesn’t instead of didn’t.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: I owe you twenty dollars, won’t I?
Correct: I owe you twenty dollars, don’t I?


PATTERN # 42

More tag questions
S = Subject; VW = Verb Word
S will VW, won't S
You will help, won't you?
Avoid using will instead of won't.
S = Subject; VW = Verb Word
S can VW, can't S
He can swim, can't he?
Avoid using can instead of can't.
S = Subject; VW = Verb Word
S HAVE to VW, DO not S
We have to hurry, don't we?
Avoid using HAVE not instead of DO not.
S = Subject; VW = Verb Word
S had to VW, didn't S
She had to leave, didn't she?
Avoid using hadn't instead of didn't.
S = Subject; VW = Verb Word
S ought to VW, shouldn't S
I ought to complain, shouldn't I?
Avoid using the incorrect form oughtn't instead of shouldn't.
S = Subject; VW = Verb Word
Let's VW , shall we
Let's talk about it, shall we?
Avoid using doesn't or don't instead of shall.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: We have to sign this, have we?
Correct: We have to sign this, don't we?


PATTERN # 43

Ambiguous tag questions
Structure 1
The abbreviation ‘s may refer to either is or has.
S = Subject
S’s -ing form , isn’t S
She’s doing her best, isn’t she?
Avoid using hasn’t instead of isn’t when the abbreviation is followed by an –ing form.
S = Subject
S’s participle , hasn’t S
She’s done her best, hasn’t she?
Avoid using isn’t instead of hasn’t when the abbreviation is followed by a participle.
Structure 2
The abbreviation ‘d may refer to either would or had.
S = Subject; VW = Verb Word
S’d VW , wouldn’t S
He’d work overtime, wouldn’t he?
Avoid using hadn’t instead of wouldn’t when the abbreviation is followed by a verb word.
S = Subject
S’d participle , hadn’t S
He’d worked overtime, hadn’t he?
Avoid using wouldn’t instead of hadn’t when the abbreviation is followed by a participle.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: She’s taken the test already, isn’t she?
Correct: She’s taken the test already, hasn’t she?


PATTERN # 44

Affirmative agreement
Structure 1
S = Subject
S BE , and so BE S
They were surprised, and so were we
Avoid using also instead of so.
Avoid using the incorrect pattern:
S = Subject
S BE , and S BE so
They were surprised, and we were so
Structure 2
S = Subject; V = Verb
S V , and so DO S
My wife talked to him about it, and so did I
Avoid using BE instead of DO. Avoid using the verb again instead of DO.
Avoid using the verb incorrect pattern:
S = Subject; V = Verb
S V , and S DO so
My wife talked to him about it, and I did so
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: We are going to the concert, and so do they.
Correct: We are going to the concert, and so are they.


PATTERN # 45

Negative agreement
Structure 1
S = Subject; VW = Verb Word
MODAL VW MODAL
HAVE participle HAVE
DO VW DO
S BE not -ing form, and neither BE not S
My wife won’t go, and neither will I
My wife hasn’t gone, and neither have I
My wife doesn’t go, and neither do I
My wife isn’t going, and neither am I
Avoid using either instead of neither.
Avoid using the subject before BE, DO, HAVE, or the modal in a clause with neither.
Structure 2
S = Subject; VW = Verb Word
MODAL VW MODAL
HAVE participle HAVE
DO VW DO
S BE not -ing form, and S BE not either
My wife won’t go, and I won’t either
My wife hasn’t gone, and I haven’t either
My wife doesn’t go, and I don’t either
My wife isn’t going, and I ‘m not either
Avoid using neither instead of either.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: She hasn’t finished the assignment yet, and neither I have.
Correct: She hasn’t finished the assignment yet, and neither have I.
She hasn’t finished the assignment yet, and I haven’t either.


PATTERN # 46

Negative imperatives
Structure 1
VW = Verb Word
Please don't VW
Please don't tell anyone
Avoid using an infinitive instead of a verb word.
Structure 2
VW = Verb Word
Would you please not VW
Would you please not tell anyone
Avoid using an infinitive instead of a verb word.
Avoid using don't after would you please.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: Would you please don't smoke?
Correct: Please don't smoke.
Would you please not smoke?


PATTERN # 47

ING forms modified by possessive pronouns
S = Subject; V Ph = Verb Phrase; V = Verb; PP = Pronoun (Possessive)
V Ph
S V PP -ing form
We can count on her helping us
He regretted their misunderstanding him
Remember that the following are possessive pronouns:
SINGULAR PLURAL
my
your
her
his
its our
your
their

Avoid using subject or objective pronouns between the verb and the –ing form.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: We don’t understand why you object to him coming with us.
Correct: We don’t understand why you object to his coming with us.


PATTERN # 48

Subject and object pronouns
PS = Pronoun (Subject); V = Verb
PS V
If the weather is good, Ellen and I will go to the beach
Remember that the following pronouns are subject pronouns:
SINGULAR PLURAL
I
you
she
he
it we
you
they

Avoid using an object pronoun as a subject.
PS = Pronoun (Subject)
it BE PS
It is he whom the company has promoted
Avoid using an object pronoun instead of a subject pronoun after the verb BE.
S = Subject; V = Verb; PO = Pronoun (Object)
S V PO
He asked us, Jane and me, whether we were happy
Remember that the following pronouns are object pronouns:
SINGULAR PLURAL
me
you
her
him
it us
you
them

Avoid using a subject pronoun as an object.
PO = Pronoun (Object); V = Verb
Let PO V
Let us, you and me, try to reach an agreement
Avoid using a subject pronoun after let.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: It was her whom everyone wanted to win.
Correct: It was she whom everyone wanted to win.


PATTERN # 49

Prepositions with object pronouns
P = Preposition; PO = Pronoun (Object)
P PO
I would be glad to take a message for her
My husband received a nice gift from them
You can go to the ceremony with us
Remember that the following prepositions are commonly used with object pronouns:
among
between
for
from of
to
with

Avoid using a subject pronoun instead of an object pronoun after a preposition.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: The experiment proved to my lab partner and I that prejudices about the results of an investigation are often unfounded.
Correct: The experiment proved to my lab partner and me that prejudices about the results of an investigation are often unfounded.




PATTERN # 50

Relative pronouns which refer to persons
V = Verb
who V
Everyone who took the tour was impressed by the city
Avoid using whom as the subject of a verb.
S = Subject; V = Verb
whom S V
He was the only Chilean whom I saw at the concert
Avoid using who instead of whom before a subject and a verb.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: I asked him who he was calling.
Correct: I asked him whom he was calling.


PATTERN # 51

Relative pronouns which refer to persons and things
someone who
She is the secretary who works in the main office
Avoid using which instead of who in reference to a person.
Something which
This is the new notebook which you ordered
Avoid using who instead of which in reference to a thing.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: The six people which cheated on the examination had to leave the room.
Correct: The six people who cheated on the examination had to leave the room.


PATTERN # 52

Countable and uncountable nouns
Structure 1
CN = Countable Noun / Count Noun
few noun
many (CN)
Few reference books may be checked out
There are many TV programs for children
Remember that the following nouns are examples of countable nouns (or count nouns):
books
classes
dollars friends
programs
seats

Avoid using an uncountable noun instead of a countable noun after few and many.
Structure 2
UN = Uncountable Noun / Non-Count Noun
little noun
much (UN)
Before he came here, he had done little traveling
We don't have much information
Remember that the following nouns are examples of uncountable nouns (or non-count nouns):
advice
hair
homework information
money
news

Avoid using a countable noun instead of an uncountable noun after little and much.
Structure 3
CN = Countable Noun / Count Noun
only a few CN
Only a few dollars have been budgeted for supplies
Avoid using few instead of a few after only.
UN = Uncountable Noun / Non-Count Noun
only a little UN
We have only a little homework for Monday
Avoid using little instead of a little after only.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: George had to balance his account very carefully because he had few money.
Correct: George had to balance his account very carefully because he had little money.


PATTERN # 53

Singular expressions of uncountable nouns
UN = Uncountable Noun / Non-Count Noun
noun
a singular of (UN)
A folk song is a piece of popular music
Remember that the following singular expressions are idiomatic:
a piece of bread
a piece of equipment
a piece of furniture
a piece of jewelry
a piece of luggage
a piece of mail a piece of music
a piece of toast
a loaf of bread
a slice of bread
a clove of garlic
an ear of corn

EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: A mail travels faster when the zip code is indicated on the envelope.
Correct: A piece of mail travels faster when the zip code is indicated on the envelope.


PATTERN # 54

Numbers with nouns
ON = Ordinal Number
the ON noun
I am outlining the sixth chapter in my notebook
Remember that the following are ordinal numbers:
first
second
third
fourth
fifth
sixth
seventh eighth
ninth
tenth
eleventh
twelfth
thirteenth
fourteenth fifteenth
sixteenth
seventeenth
eighteenth
nineteenth
twentieth

Avoid using the before the noun instead of before the ordinal number.

Avoid using a cardinal instead of an ordinal number.
CN = Cardinal Number
noun CN
I am outlining chapter six in my notebook
Remember that the following are cardinal numbers:
one
two
three
four
five
six
seven eight
nine
ten
eleven
twelve
thirteen
fourteen fifteen
sixteen
seventeen
eighteen
nineteen
twenty

Avoid using the before the cardinal number or before the noun.
Avoid using an ordinal number instead of a cardinal number.
EXAMPLE 1:
Incorrect: She started writing the eight chapter of her new novel.
Correct: She started writing the eighth chapter of her new novel.

EXAMPLE 2:
Incorrect: Flight 707 for Buenos Aires is now ready for boarding at the concourse seven.
Correct: Flight 707 for Buenos Aires is now ready for boarding at concourse seven.


PATTERN # 55

Nouns which function as adjectives
Remember that when two nouns occur together, the first noun describes the second noun; that is, the first noun functions as an adjective.
N = Noun
N1 N2
All of us at OM are foreign language teachers
Avoid using a plural form for the first noun even when the second noun is plural.
Avoid using a possessive form for the first noun.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: May I borrow some notebooks paper?
Correct: May I borrow some notebook paper?

PATTERN # 56

Hyphenated adjectives
Hyphenated adjectives are combined by means of a hyphen to form a unit.
Remember that it is common for a number to appear as the first in a series of hyphenated adjectives.
Structure 1
ADJ = Adjective
a ADJ-ADJ noun
TOEFL Test at OM is a sixty-hour course
Structure 2
ADJ = Adjective
a ADJ-ADJ-ADJ noun
A sixty-year-old employee may retire
Avoid using a plural form for any of the adjectives joined by hyphens even when the noun is plural.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: A three-minutes call anywhere in the United States costs less than a dollar when you dial it yourself.
Correct: A three-minute call anywhere in the United States costs less than a dollar when you dial it yourself.


PATTERN # 57

Modifiers of cause in clauses
of cause-and-result
S = Subject; V = Verb; ADV = Adverb; ADJ = Adjective
ADV
S V so ADJ that S V
Sheila got up so late that she missed her bus
The music was so loud that we couldn’t talk
Avoid using as or too instead of so.
Avoid using as instead of that.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: He is so slow as he never gets to class on time.
Correct: He is so slow that he never gets to class on time.


PATTERN # 58

More cause-and-result
S = Subject; V = Verb; ADJ = Adjective; NS = Noun Singular
S V such a ADJ NS that S V
It was such a lovely day that we went out
or ...
S = Subject; V = Verb; ADJ = Adjective; NS = Noun Singular
S V so ADJ a NS that S V
It was so lovely a day that we went out
Avoid using so instead of such before a.
Avoid omitting a from the patterns.
S = Subject; V = Verb; ADJ = Adjective;
NP = Noun Plural; UN = Uncountable Noun
NP
S V such ADJ UN that S V
They are such long books that I can't finish them
This is such good news that I will call them
Avoid using so instead of such.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: It was so interesting book that he couldn't put it down.
Correct: It was such an interesting book that he couldn't put it down.
It was so interesting a book that he couldn't put it down.


PATTERN # 59

Sufficiency for a purpose
Positive
S = Subject; V = Verb; ADJ = Adjective; INF = Infinitive
S V ADJ enough INF
It is warm enough to go swimming
Negative
S = Subject; V = Verb; ADJ = Adjective; NS = Noun Singular
S V not ADJ enough INF
It is not warm enough to go swimming
Avoid using enough before the adjective instead of after it.
Avoid using as between enough and the infinitive.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: Her little car isn't big enough as to seat more than two people comfortably.
Her little car isn't enough big as to seat more than two people comfortably.
Her little car isn't enough big to seat more than two people comfortably.
Correct: Her little car isn't big enough to seat more than two people comfortably.

PATTERN # 60

Adjectives with verbs of the senses
S = Subject; VS = Verb (Senses); ADJ = Adjective
S VS ADJ
Marcela felt bad about the mistake
Avoid using an adverb instead of an adjective after verbs of the senses.
Remember that the following verbs are examples of verbs of the senses:
feel
look
see
smell
sound
taste

EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: We love to go to the country in the spring
because the wild flowers smell so sweetly.
Correct: We love to go to the country in the spring because the wild flowers smell so sweet.


PATTERN # 61

Adverbs of manner
S = Subject; VS = Verb (Senses); AM = Adverb of Manner
S VS AM
The class listened attentively to the lecture
Remember that adverbs of manner describe the manner in which the verb acts.
Adverbs of manner usually end in –ly.
Avoid using an adjective instead of an adverb of manner.
Avoid using an adverb of manner between the two words of an infinitive.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: After only six months in the United States, Dr. Luis Valladares understood everyone perfect.
Correct: After only six months in the United States, Dr. Luis Valladares understood everyone perfectly.


PATTERN # 62

The adverbs of manner fast and late
S = Subject; V = Verb
S V fast
This medication relieves headache fast
and ...
S = Subject; V = Verb
S V late
The students returned home late last night
Remember that although most adverbs of manner end in -ly, fast and late do not have -ly endings.

Avoid using the incorrect forms fastly and lately.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: Helen types fastly and efficiently.
Correct: Helen types fast and efficiently.


PATTERN # 63

Time modifiers
S = Subject; P = Participle; QT = Quantity of Time
S HAVE P for QT
She has been in the U.S. for six months
and …
S = Subject; P = Participle; ST = Specific Time
S HAVE P since ST
She has been in the U.S. since June
and …
S = Subject; P = Participle; QT = Quantity of Time
S HAVE P since QT ago
She has been in the U.S. since six months ago
Remember that a quantity of time may be several days a month, two years, etc. A specific time may be Wednesday, July, 2005, etc.
Avoid using for before specific times.
Avoid using for with ago.
Avoid using before after HAVE and a participle.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: Mary has been on a diet since three weeks.
Correct: Mary has been on a diet for three weeks.
Mary has been on a diet since three weeks ago.


PATTERN # 64

Dates
ON = Ordinal Number
the ON of month
Valentines Day is on the fourteenth of February
Avoid using a cardinal number instead of an ordinal number after the.
Avoid omitting of or the from the pattern.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: I have an appointment on the five of June at three o'clock.
Correct: I have an appointment on the fifth of June at three o'clock.


PATTERN # 65

Noun comparatives
N = Noun; V = Verb
N V like N
I believe that this coat is like that one
Remember that like is a preposition and as is a conjunction.
Avoid using as instead of like in prepositional phrases.
N = Noun; V = Verb
N V the same as N
I believe that this coat is the same as that one
Avoid using to, that, or like instead of as in the phrase with the same.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: That car is almost the same like mine.
Correct: That car is almost like mine.
That car is almost the same as mine.


PATTERN # 66

More noun comparatives
Structure 1
N = Noun; V = Verb; NQ = Noun (Quality)
N V the same NQ as N
She is the same age as John
Remember that the following are examples of quality nouns:
age
color
height length price
size
style weight

Avoid using to, than, or like instead of as.
Avoid using a quality adjective instead of a quality noun after the same.
Structure 2
N = Noun; V = Verb; AQ = Adjective (Quality)
N V as AQ as N
She is as old as John
Remember that the following are examples of quality adjectives:
big
cheap
clear
easy
expensive
hard
heavy
large light
little
long
old
short
small
tall
young

Avoid using to, than, or like instead of as.
Avoid using a quality noun instead of a quality adjective after as.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: Marissa worked as hard than Luis did.
Correct: Marissa worked as hard as Luis did.


PATTERN # 67

Pseudo comparatives
Remember that although as high as and as soon as appear to be comparatives, they are idioms.
As high as introduces a limit of height or cost.
As soon as introduces a limit of time.
Structure 1
S = Subject; V = Verb
S V as high as
The price of a haircut runs as high as five dollars
Structure 2
S = Subject; VW = Verb Word; VP = Verb (Present)
S will VW as soon as S VP
He will go home as soon as he graduates
Avoid using to instead of as.
Avoid using the pattern will + verb word instead of a present verb after as soon as.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: I plan to move as soon as I will find another apartment.
Correct: I plan to move as soon as I find another apartment.


PATTERN # 68

Multiple comparatives
much
multiple as many as
Fresh fruit costs twice as much as canned fruit
We have half as many as we need
Remember that the following are examples of multiple numbers:
half
twice
three times four times five times
six times

Avoid using so instead of as after a multiple.
Avoid using more than instead of as much as (with uncountable nouns) or as many as (with countable nouns).
Avoid using the multiple after as much as and as many as.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: This one is prettier, but it costs twice more than the other one.
Correct: This one is prettier, but it costs twice as much as the other one.


PATTERN # 69

Comparatives and Superlatives
Structure 1
A/A = Adjective or Adverb
more A/A
A/A –er than
An essay test is more difficult than an objective test
An essay test is harder than an objective test
Remember that two- and three-syllable adjectives or adverbs form the comparative by using more before the adjective or adverb form.
One-syllable adjectives or adverbs form the comparative by using –er after the form.
Two-syllable adjectives or adverbs which end in y form the comparative by changing the y to I and adding –er.
Avoid using as or that instead of than.
Avoid using both more and an –er form.
Structure 2
A/A = Adjective or Adverb
most A/A
the A/A –est
An essay test is the most difficult
An essay test is the hardest
Remember that superlatives are used to compare more than two.
Avoid using a comparative –er form when three or more are compared.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: She is more prettier than all of the girls in our class.
Correct: She is the prettiest girl in our class.


PATTERN # 70

Illogical comparatives
Structure 1
NS = Noun Singular; MORE ADJ = More Adjective; ADJ -ER = Adjective + ER
more adj
NS adj -er than that
The climate here is more severe than that of the south
The climate here is colder than that of the south
Structure 2
NP = Noun Plural; MORE ADJ = More Adjective; ADJ -ER = Adjective + ER
more adj
NP adj -er than those
The prices are more expensive than those at Macy's
The prices are higher than those at Macy's
Structure 3
NS = Noun Singular
NS different from that
Football in the U.S. is different from that of other countries
Structure 4
NP = Noun Plural
NP different from those
The rules are different from those of soccer
Remember that comparisons must be made with logically comparable nouns.
Avoid omitting that and those.
Avoid using than instead of from with different.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: Robert's qualifications are better than any other candidate.
Correct: Roberto's qualifications are better than those of any other candidate.


PATTERN # 71

Double comparatives
THE C = THE Comparative; S = Subject; V = Verb
THE C S V , THE C S V
The more you review, the easier the patterns will be
Remember that a comparative is more or less with an adjective, or an adjective with –er.
Avoid using as instead of the.
Avoid using the incorrect form lesser.
Avoid omitting the.
Avoid omitting –er from the adjective.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: The more you study during the semester, the lesser you have to study the week before exams.
Correct: The more you study during the semester, the less you have to study the week before exams.


PATTERN # 72

Inclusives (A) and exclusives (B)
A: Structure 1
N = Noun; ADJ = Adjective
N N
ADJ as well as ADJ
He enjoys playing basketball as well as football
He is intelligent as well as athletic
A: Structure 2
N = Noun; ADJ = Adjective
N N N
ADJ and ADJ as well as ADJ
He enjoys playing soccer and baseball as well as tennis
He is intelligent and artistic as well as athletic
A: Structure 3
N = Noun; ADJ = Adjective
N N
both ADJ and ADJ
During the lecture both Dr. Jones and Miss Smith spoke
The lecture was both interesting and instructive
Avoid using as well as instead of and with both.
Avoid using both ... and for more than two nouns or adjectives.
B: Structure 1
N = Noun; ADJ = Adjective
N N
not only ADJ but also ADJ
One should take not only cash but also traveler's checks Checks are not only safer but also more convenient
Avoid using only not instead of not only.
Avoid using but instead of but also.
Avoid using this incorrect pattern:
N = Noun; ADJ = Adjective
N N
not only ADJ but ADJ also
not only cash but traveler's checks also
not only safer but more convenient also
B: Structure 2
N = Noun; ADJ = Adjective
N N
not ADJ but ADJ
The largest university is not Minnesota but Ohio State
The school color is not blue but red
Avoid using only instead of but.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: This new program provides only not theoretical classes but also practical training.
Correct: This new program provides not only theoretical classes but also practical training.


PATTERN # 73

Question words as connectors
Structure 1
S = Subject; V = Verb; QW = Question Word
S V QW S V
I don’t remember what her name is
Structure 2
N = Noun; ADJ = Adjective
V S QW S V
Do you remember what her name is?
Avoid using do, does, or did after the question word.
Avoid using the verb before the subject after the question word.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: I didn’t understand what did he say.
Correct: I didn’t understand what he said.


PATTERN # 74

Purpose connectors
S V so that S V
He is studying hard so that he can pass his exams
Remember that although the form so is commonly used instead of so that in spoken English, it is not considered correct in written English.
Avoid using so instead of so that as a purpose connector in written English.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: He borrowed the money so he could finish his education.
Correct: He borrowed the money so that he could finish his education.

PATTERN # 75

Condition and unexpected result
Despite noun ,
Despite his denial, we knew that he was guilty
or ...
In spite of noun ,
In spite of his denial, we knew that he was guilty
Avoid using of with despite.
Avoid omitting of after in spite.
EXAMPLE 1:
Incorrect: Despite of the light rain, the baseball game was not canceled.
Correct: Despite the light rain, the baseball game was not canceled.

EXAMPLE 2:
Incorrect: In spite the light rain, the baseball game was not canceled.
Correct: In spite of the light rain, the baseball game was not canceled.


PATTERN # 76

Cause connectors
S = Subject; V = Verb
because S V
I decided to stay in because the weather was bad
or ...
because of noun
I decided to stay in because of the weather
Avoid using because of before a subject and verb.
Avoid using because before a noun which is not followed by a verb.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: Classes will be canceled tomorrow because a national holiday.
Correct: Classes will be canceled tomorrow because it is a national holiday.

Classes will be canceled tomorrow because of a national holiday.



SECTION 2: STRUCTURE AND WRITTEN EXPRESSION
PART B: WRITTEN EXPRESSION

PATTERN # 77

Verbs
REMEMBER:
In all patterns, maintain a point of view, either present or past.
Avoid changing from present to past tense, or from past to present tense in the same sentence.
Check these examples:
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: He was among the few who want to continue working on the project.
Correct: He is among the few who want to continue working on the project.

He was among the few who wanted to continue working on the project.


PATTERN # 78

More verbs
S = Subject; VP = Verb (Past)
S VP that S VP
He said that he was sorry
Remember that the following verbs are used as the first past verb in the pattern above:
asked
forgot
knew
remembered reported
said
thought
told

Avoid using a present verb after that in the pattern.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: I thought that he is coming today.

Correct: I thought that he was coming today.


PATTERN # 79

Verbs and adverbs
REMEMBER:
In all patterns, avoid using past adverbs with verbs in the present tense.
Check these examples:
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: Between one thing and another, Pedro does not finish typing his paper last night.

Correct: Between one thing and another, Pedro did not finish typing his paper last night.


PATTERN # 80

Activities of the dead
REMEMBER:
In all patterns, avoid using present verbs to refer to activities of the dead.
Check these examples:
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: Just before he died, my friend who writes poetry published his first book.

Correct: Just before he died, my friend who wrote poetry published his first book.


PATTERN # 81

Agreement of modified subject and verb
REMEMBER:
In all patterns, there must be agreement of subject and verb.
Avoid using a verb which agrees with the modifier of a subject instead of with the subject itself.
Check these examples:
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: Their knowledge of languages and international relations help them in their work.

Correct: Their knowledge of languages and international relations helps them in their work.



PATTERN # 82

Agreement of subject with accompaniment and verb
REMEMBER:
In all patterns, avoid using a verb which agrees with a phrase of accompaniment instead of with the subject itself.
Check these examples:
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: The guest of honor, along with his wife and two sons, were seated at the first table.

Correct: The guest of honor, along with his wife and two sons, was seated at the first table.


PATTERN # 83

Verb-subject patterns
Structure 1
V = Verb; S = Subject
there V S
There are the results of the election
Structure 2
V = Verb; S = Subject
here V S
Here is the result of the election
Remember that there and here introduce verb-subject order.
Avoid using a verb that does not agree with the subject.
Structure 3
S = Subject; V = Verb
negative auxiliary S V
Never have I seen so much snow
Remember that negatives include phrases like not one, not once, never again, only rarely, and very seldom.
Auxiliaries must agree with verbs.
Avoid using a subject before the auxiliary in this pattern.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: There was ten people in line already when we arrived.

Correct: There were ten people in line already when we arrived.




PATTERN # 84

Agreement of an indefinite or collective subject and verb
REMEMBER:
1) The following subjects are singular:
anyone
anything
each
either
everyone
everything neither
no one
nothing
what
whatever
whoever

2) The following subjects are plural:
few
people
the rest


Avoid using plural verbs with singular subjects.
Avoid using singular verbs with plural subjects.
Avoid using a present verb after that in the pattern.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: Everyone who majors in architecture and fine arts study History of Art.

Correct: Everyone who majors in architecture and fine arts studies History of Art.


PATTERN # 85

Agreement of noun and pronoun
REMEMBER:
In all patterns, there must be agreement of noun and pronoun.
Avoid using a pronoun that does not agree with the noun to which it refers.
Check these examples:
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: Those of us who are over fifty years old should get their blood pressure checked regularly.

Correct: Those of us who are over fifty years old should get our blood pressure checked regularly.


PATTERN # 86

Agreement of subject and
possessive pronouns
REMEMBER:
In all patterns, there must be agreement of subject pronoun and possessive pronouns which refer to the subject.
Remember that the following possessive pronouns are singular:
her
his
its


Avoid using their instead of her, his, or its when referring to a singular subject pronoun.
Avoid using her instead of his unless referring specifically to a woman.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: Each student should have their schedule signed by the department chairman.

Correct: Each student should have his schedule signed by the department chairman.


PATTERN # 87

Agreement of impersonal pronouns
REMEMBER:
In all patterns, there must be agreement of impersonal pronouns in a sentence.
Remember that for formal writing, it is necessary to continue using the impersonal pronoun one throughout a sentence.
For more informal writing, he or his may be used instead of one or one’s.
Avoid using you, your, they, or their to refer to the impersonal pronoun one.
Check these examples:
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: At a large university, one will almost always be able to find a friend who speaks your language.

Correct: At a large university, one will almost always be able to find a friend who speaks one’s language.
At a large university, one will almost always be able to find a friend who speaks his language.

PATTERN # 88

Illogical modifiers
REMEMBER:
An introductory verbal modifier should immediately precede the noun which it modifies.
Avoid using a noun immediately after an introductory verbal phrase which may not be logically modified by the phrase.
Avoid using a passive construction after an introductory verbal modifier.
Check these examples:
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: After graduating from City College, Professor Rowland Moore’s studies were continued at State University where he received his Ph.D. in English.

Correct: After graduating from City College, Professor Rowland Moore continued his studies at State University where he received his Ph.D. in English.


PATTERN # 89

Parallel structure in a series
REMEMBER:
In all patterns, ideas of equal importance should be expressed by the same grammatical structure.
Avoid expressing ideas in a series by different structures.
Check these examples:
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: Marianne is young, enthusiastic, and she has talent.

Correct: Marianne is young, enthusiastic, and talented.


PATTERN # 90

Parallel structure after inclusives
REMEMBER:
Avoid expressing ideas after inclusives by different structures.
Check these examples:
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: Latin singer Estela Raval is not only famous in Argentina, but also abroad.

Correct: Latin singer Estela Raval is famous not only in Argentina, but also abroad.


PATTERN # 91

Unnecessary words
Structure 1
S = Subject; V = Verb; C = Complement
S V C
Vitamin C prevents colds
Structure 2
S = Subject; V = Verb; C = Complement
Anticipatory it clause S V C
It is believed that vitamin C prevents colds
Structure 3
S = Subject; V = Verb
Nominal that clause V
That vitamin C prevents colds is well known
Remember that an anticipatory it clause introduces a subject and verb. A nominal that clause introduces a verb or verb phrase.
Avoid using a combination of anticipatory it and nominal that in the same clause.
Avoid using an adjective with such phrases as in character or in nature.
Avoid using this wordy pattern below, instead of an adverb such as quickly:
in a + adjective + manner
in a quick manner
In all patterns, you should prefer simple, direct sentences to complicated, indirect sentences.
Always try to find the Subject-Verb-Complement and determine whether the other words are useful or unnecessary.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: That it is she has known him for such a long time influenced her decision.

Correct: That she has known him for such a long time influenced her decision.


PATTERN # 92

Repetition of words
with the same meaning
REMEMBER:
In all patterns, avoid using words with the same meaning consecutively in a sentence.
Check these examples:
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: The new innovations at the World’s Fair were fascinating.

Correct: The innovations at the World’s Fair were fascinating.


PATTERN # 93

Repetition of noun by pronoun
REMEMBER:
In all patterns, avoid using a noun and the pronoun that refers to it consecutively in a sentence.
Check these examples:
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: My teacher he said to listen to the news on the radio in order to practice listening comprehension.

Correct: My teacher said to listen to the news on the radio in order to practice listening comprehension.


PATTERN # 94

Confusing verbs
In all patterns, words should be chosen to express the exact meaning that the writer wishes to convey.
Structure 1
S = Subject; C = Complement; M = Modifier
S RAISE C M
Heavy rain raises the water level of the reservoir every spring
Heavy rain raised the water level of the reservoir last week
S = Subject; C = Complement; M = Modifier
S RAISE C M
The water level rises when it rains every spring
The water level rose when it rained last week
Remember that to raise means to move to a higher place or to cause to rise. To rise means to go up or to increase.
Structure 2
S = Subject; C = Complement; M = Modifier
S LAY C M
The postman lays the mail on the table every day
The postman laid the mail on the table yesterday
S = Subject; C = Complement; M = Modifier
S LIE C M
He lies on the sofa to rest every day after work
He lay on the sofa to rest yesterday after work
Remember that to lay means to put, to place or to cause to lie. To lie means to recline or to occupy a place. The past form of the verb to lie is lay.
Structure 3
S = Subject; C = Complement; M = Modifier
S LET C M
Their mother lets them stay up late every night
Their mother let them stay up late last night
S = Subject; C = Complement; M = Modifier
S LEAVE C M
She leaves work to pick up the children at 2 pm every day
She left work to pick up the children at 2 pm yesterday
Remember that to let means to allow or to permit.
To leave means to depart or to go.
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: The cost of living in Argentina has raised over twenty percent in the past year.

Correct: The cost of living in Argentina has risen over twenty percent in the past year.

PATTERN # 95

Prepositional idioms
AVOID THESE ERRORS PREFER THESE IDIOMS
accede on, by
according
approve for
ashamed with
bored of
capable to
compare to
compete together
composed from
concerned of
conscious for
effects in
equal as
excepting for
after now on
frown to
glance
incapable to
on conflict
inferior with
in the habit to
at the near future
knowledge on
near to
in opinion
opposite over
regard of
related with
respect of
similar as
ever since
surprised at
up until
with regard of accede to
according to
approve of
ashamed of
bored with
capable of
compare with
compete
composed of
concerned with
conscious of
effects on
equal to
except for
from now on
frown on
glance at, through
incapable of
in conflict
inferior to
in the habit of
in the near future
knowledge of
near; next to
of the opinion
opposite
regard to
related to
respect for
similar to
since
surprised by
until
with regard to

Check these examples:
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: Excepting for the Patagonia region, most of the nation will have very pleasant weather tonight and tomorrow.

Correct: Except for the Patagonia region, most of the nation will have very pleasant weather tonight and tomorrow.


PATTERN # 96

Parts of speech
REMEMBER:
Abstract nouns are nouns that can't be touched, tasted, seen, heard or smelt. They usually represent feeling, ideas and qualities.
Abstract nouns derived from verbs often have the following endings: -ation, -ity, and -ment.
These are some examples:
to consider
to mature
to develop consideration
maturity
development

Adjectives may not be used in place of nouns.
Avoid using adjectives that end in -ing and -able in place of abstract nouns.
Avoid using verbs in place of nouns.
Check these examples:
EXAMPLE:
Incorrect: The agreeing is not legal unless everyone signs his name.

Correct: The agreement is not legal unless everyone signs his name.







SECTION 3: READING COMPREHENSION AND VOCABULARY
PART A: VOCABULARY
PATTERN # 97

Vocabulary in context
The Vocabulary Section of the TOEFL is probably the most difficult section to prepare for. Since there are hundreds, even thousands of words that may be tested, it is not possible to identify and study them all.
In order to fulfill this task we can provide you with THREE excellent helps:
Help # 1
The list below contains 200 words (verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and nouns) that are commonly tested on the TOEFL.
Our first help is to offer you the WordWeb dictionary. one of the best tools we use at OM Personal. At present, you can download here this useful dictionary (6.03MB) for free.
This dictionary will help you look up the meanings of this 200-word list.
We can assure you this tip will help you pass your Evaluation Test # 3.
abate elusive premise
abhorred encounter prevalent
accurate enduring quest
acknowledge en-route readily
adjacent enticing refined
advisory ethnocentrism rejected
advocate exhaust release
aesthetic falter relief
affixed famine relying
alchemist far-reaching request
alchemy favor revamping
allegation feared rugged
alley flood run-off
alluring flounder rusty
ancient freshman seep down
anomalous funnel sewage
appendectomy furnace sewer
apprehended furthered shoot out
asserted gambling shrugging
assets garret sidestep
behavior genuine sighing
belittled geyser sighted
bellow glance sip
bequests gossiping skirmish
bickering govern sleazy
blending granted sneeze
blizzard growl sniff
blunder haphazard snore
bonds harvest soaked
borrowed hasty softener
brought out heed sophomore
camped hesitate sorted
canned hilarious spanked
chuckling hoarse stacked
cleansed illustrious starvation
cluttered incongruous submit
coach inert subsequent
colloquy installments surveying
commitment issued switchover
compete jerk tampering
comprehend junk teasing
comprised of lead tenant
compulsory lessen thereby
conceal limp threaten
concord lozenge thrown out
congenial menace thump
consecrating mere trails
cryptic meritocracy transmuted
curtailed mileage treatises
debtors misunderstood trend
decade moldy tuned
demise monks tyros
despite mosque ultimately
detached mumble unburned
discredit napping understudy
disguise oblivious unrestrained
diverted obsolete upheld
donor outer vacant
dosage overlook varying
dough overwhelm wanderers
doze oxidized weep
draft palatable widespread
dross perilous yawning
dye philately yelling
eager pledging yelp
ease predator zealots



SECTION 3: READING COMPREHENSION AND VOCABULARY
PART B: READING COMPREHENSION
PATTERN # 98

Main ideas
The main idea is the most important point or idea in a reading passage. It is a general statement.
A main idea usually occurs at the beginning of a passage, either as a title or a topic sentence. Sometimes it is repeated at the end as a summary.
Answers to questions about main ideas may require a statement of the idea or a title that summarizes the main idea.
Some students prefer to answer the questions about main ideas first while they still have a general idea of the passage. Answering questions about details first can cause the reader to forget the main idea.
In reading for the main idea, use your skimming skills, that is, read the text superficially.
EXAMPLE:
Although dinosaurs have long captured man's imagination, no human ever saw one. For over one hundred million years dinosaurs roamed the earth, but for some unknown reason, they perished seventy million years ago, years before man appeared.
There are several theories as to why the giants disappeared. Some scientists believe that the earth became too cold; others believe that it became too dry; still others argue that smaller mammals ate the dinosaur eggs before they had an opportunity to hatch.
Whatever the reason, their great bodies sank into the mud where slowly the bones, teeth, and even the skin became fossilized. Today huge stone footprints and enormous skeletal structures are the only record we have of their mysterious existence.
Question: What is a good title for this passage?
Answer: The Disappearance of Dinosaurs.


PATTERN # 99

Details
A detail is a specific fact. It may be an example or a statement to support the main idea.
Details usually occur after a main idea in a reading passage.
Answers to questions about details may require specific information about who, what, when, where, why, how, how much, or how many, etc.
In reading for details, use your scanning skills, that is, examine hastily the text.
EXAMPLE:
For fast relief of acid indigestion, heartburn and sour stomach due to acidity caused by eating or drinking in excess.
Directions: Chew one or two tablets after meals and at bedtime, or as directed by a physician.
Warning: Do not take more than 16 tablets in a 24-hour period or use the maximum dosage of this product for more than two weeks, except under the advice and supervision of a physician. Keep this and all drugs out of the reach of children.
Question: How do you take this medication?
Answer: You chew it.


PATTERN # 100

Inferences and Restatements
Inferences
An inference is a logical conclusion.
An inference must be based on information in the reading passage, not on experience or information from other sources.
Answers to inference questions may require an interpretation or a prediction.
In reading for inferences, use your logic.
EXAMPLE:
Some government agencies or banks may require a statement concerning the cost of a student's education in the United States. In order to fulfill this requirement, State University students may present the following estimate to any authority needing such information:
Tuition and fees
Books and supplies
Room and board
Insurance
Miscellaneous $ 5000
$ 800
$ 8000
$ 400
$ 2000
$ 16200


Question: Where would this information most probably be printed?
Answer: In an announcement or a university catalog published by State University.

Restatements
A restatement is a sentence that has the same meaning as another sentence.
Certain structures are more common as restatements: passives, negatives, chronologies, comparatives, conditionals, and concessions.
In reading for restatements, use your knowledge of structure.
EXAMPLES:
Passive
Statement: Because of death and di-. vorce, about 17 percent of all children in the U.S. are brought up by only one parent.
Restatement: Single parents bring up 17 percent of all children in the U.S.
Negative
Statement: There have been only twenty-six days in recorded history in which a war was not going on somewhere in the world.
Restatement: A war has been going on somewhere in the world for all but twenty-six days in recorded history.
Chronological
Statement: Before Florida was traded to the English for Cuba, it belonged to the Spanish Empire.
Restatement: Florida belonged to the English after the Spanish traded it for Cuba.
Comparative
Statement: Since you may live for more than a week without food and three days without water, but only a few hours in severe weather, exposure to the elements is more dangerous than hunger and thirst.
Restatement: Hunger and thirst are less dangerous than exposure to the elements because you can live longer without food and water than you can in severe weather.
Conditional
Statement: If a V chromosome is transferred from the father, the baby will be a boy.
Restatement: Male children are born when the father transfers a Y chromosome.
Concessional
Statement: Men don't usually shake hands with women in the United States unless they meet in a business situation or the woman offers her hand first.
Restatement: Men will shake hands with women in the United States if they meet in a business situation or if the woman offers her hand first.

Tradisi Antropologi dalam Kajian Agama:
Kajian Empirik Relasi Agama dan Sosial
(Tulisan ini diadaptasi dari tulisan Jamhari Ma'ruf dengan judul: “PENDEKATAN ANTROPOLOGI DALAM KAJIAN ISLAM” Sumber: http://www.ditpertais.net/artikel/ jamhari 01.asp)

Walaupun sejak awal disadari bahwa kajian tentang agama akan mengalami kesulitan karena meneliti sesuatu yang menyangkut kepercayaan (beliefs) yang ukuran kebenarannya terletak pada keyakinan, tradisi antropologi untuk mengkaji agama, terutama abad ke 16 dan 17, berkembang dengan pesat. Evans-Pritchard, salah seorang pionir dalam tradisi antropologi sosial di Inggris, mengatakan bahwa dilema kajian tentang agama adalah bahwa pemahaman realitas agama tidak akan sepenuhnya dapat difahami kecuali oleh orang yang mengamalkan agama itu sendiri. Hal ini pernah ia rasakan, misalnya, ketika menulis tentang perjuangan para Sufi di Cyrenica Libia melawan penjajahan Italia, dimana ia merasa kesulitan untuk menjelaskan fenomena ketaatan pengikut Sufi kepada guru Sufi mereka. Tak dapat disangkal bahwa kemudian Evans-Pritchard dapat menggambarkan fenomena Sufi di Cyrenica dengan penuh empati.
Kesulitan mempelajari agama dengan pendekatan budaya, dengan mempelajari wacana, pemahaman dan tingkah laku manusia dalam hubungannya dengan ajaran agama, dirasakan juga oleh mereka yang beragama. Kesulitan itu terjadi karena ketakutan untuk membicarakan masalah agama yang sakral dan bahkan mungkin tabu untuk dipelajari. Persoalan itu ditambah lagi dengan keyakinan bahwa agama adalah bukan hasil rekayasa intelektual manusia, tetapi berasal dari wahyu suci Tuhan. Sehingga realitas keagamaan diyakini sebagai sebuah "takdir sosial" yang tak perlu lagi dipahami. Namun sesungguhnya harus disadari bahwa tidak dapat dielakkan agama tanpa pengaruh budaya-ulah pikir manusia-tidak akan dapat berkembang meluas ke seluruh manusia. Bukankah penyebaran agama sangat terkait dengan usaha manusia untuk menyebarkannya ke wilayah-wilayah lain. Dan bukankah pula usaha-usaha manusia, jika dalam Islam bisa dilihat peran para sahabat, menerjemahkan dan mengkonstruksi ajaran agama ke dalam suatu kerangka sistem yang dapat diikuti oleh manusia. Lahirnya ilmu tafsir, ilmu hadits, ilmu fikih dan ilmu usul fikih adalah hasil konstruksi intelektual manusia dalam menerjemahkan ajaran agama sesuai dengan kebutuhan manusia di dalam lingkungan sosial dan budayanya. Keberagaman sosial budaya yang ada di dunia ini mengakibatkan pada kompleksitas agama.
Sebagai fenomena universal yang kompleks, keberadaan agama dalam masyarakat telah mendorong lahirnya banyak kajian tentang agama. Kajian-kajian tentang agama berkembang bukannya karena agama ternyata tak dapat dipisahkan dari realitas sosial, tetapi ternyata realitas keagamaan berperan besar dalam perubahan sosial dan transformasi sosial. Socrates berapa ribu tahun yang lalu menyatakan bahwa fenomena agama adalah fenomena kemanusiaan. Pernyataan ini seringkali digunakan para apologis agama untuk menguatkan keyakinan mereka akan betapa mendasarnya posisi agama dalam nilai-nilai kemanusiaan. Namun perlu juga ditandaskan bahwa sikap mempertanyakan kembali makna agama dan relevansinya dengan kehidupan sosial juga fenomena universal yang ada dimana-mana. Kajian-kajian agama baik dalam masyarakat primitif sampai pada masyarakat yang modern menunjukkan bahwa keberadaan agama selalu mengandung dua sisi yang berbarengan, yaitu kecenderungan transendensi dan sekularisasi.
Secara garis besar kajian agama dalam antropologi dapat dikategorikan ke dalam empat kerangka teoritis: intellectualist, structuralist, functionalist dan symbolist. Tradisi kajian agama dalam antropologi diawali dengan mengkaji agama dari sudut pandang intelektualisme yang mencoba untuk melihat definisi agama dalam setiap masyarakat dan kemudian melihat perkembangan (religious development) dalam satu masyarakat. Termasuk dalam tradisi adalah misalnya E.B. Taylor yang berupaya untuk mendefinisikan agama sebagai kepercayaan terhadap adanya kekuatan supranatural. Walaupun definisi agama ini sangat minimalis, definis ini menunjukkan kecenderungan melakukan generalisasi realitas agama dari animisme sampai kepada agama monoteis. Makanya kecenderungan tradisi intelektualisme ini kemudian meneliti dari sudut perkembangan agama dari yang anismisme menuju monoteisme. Menurut Mircea Eliade perkembangan agama menujukkan adanya gejala seperti bandul jam yang selalu bergerak dari satu ujung ke ujung yang lain. Demikian juga agama berkembang dari kecenderungan anismisme menuju monoteisme dan akan kembali ke animisme. Tetapi, berdasar pada ajaran yang terdapat dalam kitab suci, Max Muller berpandangan bahwa agama bermula dari monotheisme kemudian berkembang menjadi agama-agama yang banyak itu.
Ketiga teori, strukturalis, fungsionalis dan simbolis, sesungguhnya lahir dari Emile Durkheim. Buku Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, telah mengilhami banyak orang dalam melihat agama. Lewat buku itu Durkheim ingin melihat agama dari bentuknya yang paling sederhana yang diimani oleh suku Aborigin di Asutralia sampai ke agama yang well-structured dan well-organised seperti yang dicerminkan dalam agama monoteis. Durkheim menemukan bahwa aspek terpenting dalam pengertian agama adalah adanya distingsi antara yang sacred dan yang profan. Namun demikian ia tak setuju dengan pendapat yang menyatakan bahwa yang sacred itu selalu bersifat spiritual. Dalam agama sederhana suku Aborigin Australia ditemukan bahwa penyembahan kepada yang sacred ternyata diberikan kepada hal-hal yang profan semisal Kanguru.
Di samping kritik terhadap pendekatan intelektualis itu, Durkheim juga mengungkapkan bahwa masyarakat dikonseptualisasikan sebagai sebuah totalitas yang diikat oleh hubungan sosial. Dalam pengertian ini maka society (masyarakat) bagi Durkheim adalah "struktur dari ikatan sosial yang dikuatkan dengan konsensus moral." Pandangan ini yang mengilhami para antropolog untuk menggunakan pendekatan struktural dalam memahami agama dalam masyarakat. Claude Levi-Strauss adalah satu murid Durkheim yang terus mengembangkan pendekatan strukturalisme, utamanya untuk mencari jawaban hubungan antara individu dan masyarakat. Bagi Levi-Strauss agama baik dalam bentuk mitos, magic adalah model bagi kerangka bertindak bagi individu dalam masyarakat. Jadi pandangan sosial Durkheim dikembangkan oleh Levi-Strauss kepada tidak saja secara hubungan sosial tetapi juga dalam ideologi dan pikiran sebagai struktur sosial.
Sementara itu pandangan Durkheim tentang fungsi dalam masyarakat sangat berpengaruh dalam tradisi antropologi sosial di Inggris. Pandangan Durkheim yang mengasumsikan bahwa masyarakat selalu dalam keadaan equilibrium dan saling terikat satu dengan yang lain, telah mendorong para antropolog untuk melihat fungsi agama dalam masyarakat yang seimbang tersebut. Fungsi psikologi agama, sebagai penguat dari ikatan moral masyarakat dan fungsi sosial agama sebagai penguat solidaritas manusia menjadi dasar dari perkembangan teori fungsionalisme. Branislaw Malinowski mengatakan bahwa fungsi agama dalam masyarakat adalah memberikan jawaban-jawaban terhadap permasalahan-permasalahan yang tidak dapat diselesaikan dengan common sense-rasionalitas dan kemampuan menggunakan teknologi. Dalam setiap kali menyelesaikan persoalan-persoalannya, manusia menggunakan kemampuan rasionalitas dan penciptaan teknologi. Ketika sebuah masyarakat traditional Suku Trobiand di daerah pesisir Papua Nugini menemukan bahwa ladangnya telah dirusak oleh babi hutan, maka dengan kemampuan rasionalitas dan penguasaan teknologinya masyarakat suku Trobiand membuat pagar agar babi tak dapat lagi masuk ke ladangnya. Namun ketika hendak berburu ikan di lautan, dimana gelombang lautan dan cuaca yang tidak dapat mereka kontrol dengan kemampuan rasionalitas dan teknologi, mereka menggunakan agama sebagai pemecahnya. Maka sebelum mereka berlayar, mereka melakukan ritual dengan sesaji sebagai sarana komunikasi dengan kekuatan spiritual untuk menyelesaikan masalah yang unpredictable.
Teori simbolisme yang menjadi teori dominan pada dekade 70-an sebenarnya juga mengambil akarnya dari Durkheim, walaupun tidak secara eksplisit Durkheim membangun teori simbolisme. Pandangan Durkheim mengenai makna dan fungsi ritual dalam masyarakat sebagai suatu aktifitas untuk mengembalikan kesatuan masyarakat mengilhami para antropolog untuk menerapkan pandangan ritual sebagai simbol. Salah satu yang menggunakan teori tersebut adalah Victor Turner ketika ia melakukan kajian ritual (upacara keagamaan) di masyarakat Ndembu di Afrika. Turner melihat bahwa ritual adalah simbol yang dipakai oleh masyarakat Ndembu untuk menyampaikan konsep kebersamaan. Ritual bagi masyarakat Ndembu adalah tempat mentransendensikan konflik keseharian kepada nilai-nilai spiritual agama. Oleh karena itu, ritual, utama cult ritual (ritual yang berhubungan dengan masalah-masalah ketidakberuntungan-misfortune) mengandung empat fungsi sosial yang penting. Pertama, ritual sebagai media untuk mengurangi permusuhan (reduce hostility) di antara warga masyarakat yang disebabkan adanya kecurigaan-kecurigaan niat jahat seseorang kepada yang lain. Kedua, ritual digunakan untuk menutup jurang perbedaan yang disebabkan friksi di dalam masyarakat. Ketiga, ritual sebagai sarana untuk memantapkan kembali hubungan yang akrab. Keempat, ritual sebagai medium untuk menegaskan kembali nilai-nilai masyarakat. Jadi Turner melihat ritual tidak hanya sebagai kewajiban (prescribed) saja, melainkan sebagai simbol dari apa yang sebenarnya terjadi dalam masyarakat.
Di samping tradisi intelektual dan tiga tradisi-strukturalis, fungsionalis dan simbolis-yang berakar dari tradisi Durkheim, ada tradisi dalam kajian agama yang berkembang dari pandangan-pandangan Weber. Tidak seperti halnya tradisi-tradisi intelektualis dan tradisi Durkheimian, Weber lebih tertarik untuk melihat hubungan antara doktrin agama dan aktifitas duniawi manusia, seperti misalnya ekonomi dan politik. Oleh karena itu Weber tidak tertarik untuk mendiskusikan definisi atau argumentasi rasionalitas keberadaan agama. Dalam kajian tentang hubungan antara etika Protestan, khususnya sekte Calvinisme, dan perkembangan kapitalisme modern, menunjukkan minat Weber untuk mendiskusikan hubungan antara religious ethic dan kapitalisme. Ajaran etika tentang bekerja keras yang selalu muncul dalam tulisan-tulisan pendeta sekte Calvinisme dan yang juga menjadi tema-tema yang diulang-ulang dalam ceramah keagamaan sekte ini, adalah sesuai dengan karakter buruh modern.
Tradisi yang dikembangkan oleh Weber ini banyak diikuti oleh ilmuwan sosial utamanya di Amerika. Kajian yang dilakukan oleh Robert N. Bellah tentang Tokugawa Religion yang mencoba melihat hubungan etika agama dengan restorasi Meiji, dan juga kajian yang dilakukan oleh Geertz tentang pasar di Jawa dan priyayi Bali memakai pendekatan yang dipakai oleh Weber. Kajian-kajian yang demikian ini tidak lagi mempersoalkan benar dan salahnya suatu agama, tetapi melihat sejauhmana agama-aspek idealisme-mempengaruhi perilaku sosial manusia. Akibat yang nyata dari pendekatan kajian di atas menempatkan agama pada realitas empiris yang dapat dilihat dan diteliti. Dalam pandangan ilmu sosial, pertanyaan keabsahan suatu agama tidak terletak pada argumentasi-argumentasi teologisnya, melainkan terletak pada bagaimana agama dapat berperan dalam kehidupan sosial manusia. Di sini agama diposisikan dalam kerangka sosial empiris, sebagaimana realitas sosial lainnya, sebab dalam kaitannya dengan kehidupan manusia, tentu hal-hal yang empirislah, walaupun hal yang ghaib juga menjadi hal penting, yang menjadi perhatian kajian sosial. Jika agama diperuntukkan untuk kepentingan manusia, maka sesungguhnya persoalan-persoalan manusia adalah juga merupakan persoalan agama. Dalam Islam manusia digambarkan sebagai khalifah (wakil) Tuhan di muka bumi. Secara antropologis ungkapan ini berarti bahwa sesungguhnya realitas manusia adalah realitas ketuhanan. Tanpa memahami realitas manusia-termasuk di dalamnya adalah realitas sosial budayanya-pemahaman terhadap ketuhanan tidak akan sempurna, karena separuh dari realitas ketuhanan tidak dimengerti. Di sini terlihat betapa kajian tentang manusia, yang itu menjadi pusat perhatian antropologi, menjadi sangat penting.Pentingnya mempelajari realitas manusia ini juga terlihat dari pesan Al-Qur'an ketika membicarakan konsep-konsep keagamaan. Al-Qur'an seringkali menggunakan "orang" untuk menjelaskan konsep kesalehan. Misalnya, untuk menjelaskan tentang konsep takwa, Al-Qur'an menunjuk pada konsep "muttaqien", untuk menjelaskan konsep sabar, Al-Qur'an menggunakan kata "orang sabar" dan seterusnya. Kalau kita merujuk pada pesan Qur'an yang demikian itu sesungguhnya, konsep-konsep keagamaan itu termanifestasikan dalam perilaku manusia. Oleh karena itu pemahaman konsep agama terletak pada pemahaman realitas kemanusiaan.
Dengan demikian realitas manusia sesungguhnya adalah realitas empiris dari ketuhanan. Dan persoalan-persoalan yang dihadapi manusia adalah cerminan dari permasalahan ketuhanan. Maka mempelajari realitas manusia, dengan segala aspeknya, adalah mempelajari Tuhan-baca agama-dalam realitas empiris. Kenyataan bahwa realitas manusia-yang tercermin dalam bermacam-macam budaya-beragam, maka diperlukan kajian cross culture untuk melihat realitas universal agama. Marshal Hodgson menggambarkan bahwa bermacam-macamnya manifestasi agama dalam kebudayaan tertentu-little tradition-sesungguhnya adalah mosaik dari realitas universal agama-great tradition.

Agama Sebagai Sistem Budaya
Geertz adalah orang pertama yang mengungkapkan pandangan tentang agama sebagai sebuah system budaya. Karya Geertz, "Religion as a Cultural System," dianggap sebagai tulisan klasik tentang agama. Pandangan Geertz, saat itu ketika teori-teori tentang kajian agama mandeg pada teori-teori besar Mark, Weber dan Durkheim yang berkutat pada teori fungsionalisme dan struktural fungsionalisme, memberikan arah baru bagi kajian agama. Geertz mengungkapkan bahwa agama harus dilihat sebagai suatu system yang mampu mengubah suatu tatanan masyarakat. Tidak seperti pendahulunya yang menganggap agama sebagai bagian kecil dari system budaya, Geertz berkayinan bahwa agama adalah system budaya sendiri yang dapat membentuk karakter masyarakat. Walaupun Geertz mengakui bahwa ide yang demikian tidaklah baru, tetapi agaknya sedikit orang yang berusaha untuk membahasnya lebih mendalam. Oleh karena itu Geertz mendefinisikan agama sebagai: "A system of symbols which acts to establish powerful, pervasive and long-lasting moods and motivations of a general order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic."
Dengan pandangan seperti ini, Geertz dapat dikategorikan ke dalam kelompok kajian semiotic tradition warisan dari Ferdinand de Saussure yang pertama mengungkapkan tentang makna simbol dalam tradisi linguistik. Geertz mengartikan simbol sebagai suatu kendaraan (vehicle) untuk menyampaikan suatu konsepsi tertentu. Jadi bagi Geertz norma atau nilai keagamaan harusnya diinterpretasikan sebagai sebuah simbol yang menyimpan konsepsi tertentu. Simbol keagamaan tersebut mempunyai dua corak yang berbeda; pada satu sisi ia merupakan modes for reality dan di sisi yang lainnya ia merupakan modes of reality. Yang pertama menunjukkan suatu existensi agama sebagai suatu sistem yang dapat membentuk masyarakat ke dalam cosmic order tertentu, sementara itu sisi modes of reality merupakan pengakuan Geertz akan sisi agama yang dipengaruhi oleh lingkungan sosial dan perilaku manusia.
Geertz menerapkan pandangan-pandangannya untuk meneliti tentang agama dalam satu masyarakat. Karya Geertz yang tertuang dalam The Religion of Java maupun Islam Observed merupakan dua buku yang bercerita bagaimana agama dikaji dalam masyarakat. Buku The Religion of Java memperlihatkan hubungan agama dengan ekonomi dan politik suatu daerah. Juga bagaimana agama menjadi ideologi kelompok yang kemudian menimbulkan konflik maupun integrasi dalam suatu masyarakat. Sementara itu Islam Observed ingin melihat perwujudan agama dalam masyarakat yang berbeda untuk memperlihatkan kemampuan agama dalam mewujudkan masyarakat maupun sebagai perwujudan dari interaksi dengan budaya lokal.